First Pass

The previous chapter introduced a predicate called wp to describe the weakest precondition of a term t with respect to a given postcondition Q. The weakest precondition wp was characterized by the equivalence H ==> wp t Q iff triple t H Q. We proved "wp-style" reasoning rules, such as:
    wp t₁ (fun r ⇒ wp t₂ Q) ==> wp (trm_seq t₁ t₂) Q In this chapter, we introduce a function, called wpgen, to compute the weakest precondition of a term. The value of wpgen t Q is defined recursively over the structure of the term t, and it computes a formula that is logically equivalent to wp t Q. The fundamental difference between wp and wpgen is that, whereas wp t Q is a predicate that we can reason about by applying reasoning rules, wpgen t Q is a predicate that we can reason about simply by unfolding its definition. (This sentence will probably make more sense to the reader later on in the chapter.) Another key difference between wp and wpgen is that the formulae produced by wpgen no longer refer to program syntax. In particular, all program variables involved in a term t in a statement of the form wp t Q are replaced with Coq variables when computing wpgen t Q. The benefit of eliminating program variables is that formulae produced by wpgen can be manipulated without the need to simplify substitutions of the form subst x v t₂. Instead, the beta reduction mechanism of Coq will automatically perform substitutions for Coq variables. The reader might have encountered the term "weakest precondition generator" in the past. Such generators take as input a program annotated with all function specifications and loop invariants and produce a set of proof obligations that need to be checked in order to conclude that the code indeed satisfies its logical annotations. In contrast, the weakest preconditions computed by wpgen apply to a piece of code independent of any specification or invariant. More precisely, the computation of wpgen t Q treats the postcondition Q as an abstract variable. At a high level, wpgen is a key ingredient for smoothing the user experience of conducting interactive proofs in Separation Logic. The x-tactics presented in the first two chapters of the course were built on top of wpgen. The matter of the present chapter is to show:

• how to define wpgen t Q as a recursive function in Coq,
• how to integrate support for the frame rule in this definition,
• how to carry out practical proofs using wpgen.

The rest of the "first pass" section gives a high-level tour of the steps of the construction of wpgen. The formal definitions and the set up of x-tactics follow in the "more details" section. The treatment of local functions is presented in the "optional material" section. This chapter is probably the most technical of the course. The reader who finds it hard to follow the entire chapter may safely jump to the next chapter at any point after the "first pass" section.

The Basic Structure of wpgen

As first approximation, wpgen t Q is defined as a recursive function that pattern matches on its argument t, and produces an appropriate heap predicate in each case. The definitions somewhat mimic the reasoning rules of wp. Let us show the pattern of the definition and comment it afterwards.
    Fixpoint wpgen (t:trm) (Q:val→hprop) : hprop :=
      match t with
      | trm_val v ⇒ Q v
      | trm_var x ⇒ \[False]
      | trm_app v₁ v₂ ⇒ \∃ H, H \* \[triple t H Q]
      | trm_let x t₁ t₂ ⇒ wpgen t₁ (fun v ⇒ wpgen (subst x v t₂) Q)
      ...
      end. Recall from the previous chapter that the rule wp_val asserts that Q v entails wp (trm_val v) Q. Well, wpgen (trm_val v) Q is defined as Q v. Likewise, recall that the rule wp_let asserts that wp t₁ (fun v ⇒ wp (subst x v t₂) Q) entails wp (trm_let x t₁ t₂) Q. Well, the definition of wpgen is such that wpgen (trm_let x t₁ t₂) Q is defined to be wpgen t₁ (fun v ⇒ wpgen (subst x v t₂) Q), that is, the same expression as in wp_let only with wp replaced by wpgen. An interesting case is wgen (trm_var x) Q. There are no rules on wp to reason about variables, because they correspond to stuck terms. To reflect the fact that wgen (trm_var x) Q cannot be derived, we define it as \[False]. The last key case is that of function calls. Consider a term t that consists of a function application trm_app v₁ v₂. How should we define wpgen (trm_app t₁ t₂) Q? We need to define it to be a heap predicate, call it H, such that the function call trm_app t₁ t₂ admits H as precondition and Q as postcondition. In other words, the definition of wpgen (trm_app t₁ t₂) Q should consist of a heap predicate H such that triple t H Q holds. We do not know what this H should be, so we simply quantify it existentially. This suggests why the definition of wpgen (trm_app t₁ t₂) Q should be \∃ H, H \* \[triple t H Q]. To obtain the actual definition of wpgen, we need to refine the above definition in four steps.

Step 1: wpgen as a Recursive Function over Terms

In a first step, we modify the definition in order to make it structurally recursive. Indeed, in the above the recursive call wpgen (subst x v t₂) is not made on a strict subterm of trm_let x t₁ t₂, so Coq will reject this definition as it stands. To fix the issue, we change the definition to the form wpgen E t Q, where E denotes an association list bindings values to variables. The intention is that wpgen E t Q computes the weakest precondition for the term obtained by substituting all the bindings from E in t. This term is described by the operation isubst E t, which is formally defined later in the chapter. The updated definition looks as follows. Observe how, when traversing trm_let x t₁ t₂, the context E gets extended as (x,v)::E. Observe also how, when reaching a variable x, a lookup for x into the context E is performed for recovering the value bound to x.
    Fixpoint wpgen (E:ctx) (t:trm) (Q:val→hprop) : hprop :=
      match t with
      | trm_val v ⇒ Q v
      | trm_var x ⇒
           match lookup x E with
           | Some v ⇒ Q v
           | None ⇒ \[False]
           end
      | trm_app v₁ v₂ ⇒ \∃ H, H \* \[triple (isubst E t) H Q]
      | trm_let x t₁ t₂ ⇒ wpgen E t₁ (fun v ⇒ wpgen ((x,v)::E) t₂ Q)
      ...
      end.

Step 2: wpgen Reformulated to Eagerly Match on the Term

In a second step, we slightly tweak the definition in order to move the fun (Q:val→hprop), by which the postcondition is taken as argument, to place it inside every case of the pattern matching. The idea is to make it explicit that wpgen E t can be computed without any knowledge of Q. In the definition shown below, formula is a shorthand for the type (val→hprop)->hprop, which is the type of wpgen E t.
    Fixpoint wpgen (E:ctx) (t:trm) : formula :=
      match t with
      | trm_val v ⇒ fun (Q:val→hprop) ⇒ Q v
      | trm_var x ⇒ fun (Q:val→hprop) ⇒
           match lookup x E with
           | Some v ⇒ Q v
           | None ⇒ \[False]
           end
      | trm_app t₁ t₂ ⇒ fun (Q:val→hprop) ⇒
                            \∃ H, H \* \[triple (isubst E t) H Q]
      | trm_let x t₁ t₂ ⇒ fun (Q:val→hprop) ⇒
                              wpgen E t₁ (fun v ⇒ wpgen ((x,v)::E) t₂ Q)
      ...
      end.

Step 3: wpgen Reformulated with Auxiliary Definitions

In a third step, we introduce auxiliary definitions to improve the readability of the output of wpgen. For example, we let wpgen_val v be a shorthand for fun (Q:val→hprop) ⇒ Q v. Likewise, we let wpgen_let F₁ F₂ be a shorthand for fun (Q:val→hprop) ⇒ F₁ (fun v ⇒ F₂ Q), where v can appear in F₂. Using these auxiliary definitions, the definition of wpgen can be reformulated as follows.
    Fixpoint wpgen (E:ctx) (t:trm) : formula :=
      match t with
      | trm_val v ⇒ wpgen_val v
      | trm_var x ⇒ wpgen_var E x
      | trm_app t₁ t₂ ⇒ wpgen_app (isubst E t)
      | trm_let x t₁ t₂ ⇒ wpgen_let (wpgen E t₁) (fun v ⇒ wpgen ((x,v)::E) t₂)
      ...
      end. Each of the auxiliary definitions introduced for wpgen comes with a custom notation that enables a nice display of the output of wpgen. For example, the notation Let' v := F₁ in F₂ stands for wpgen_let F₁ (fun v ⇒ F₂). Thanks to this notation, the result of computing wpgen on a source term Let x := t₁ in t₂, which is an Coq expression of type trm, is a Coq expression of type formula displayed as Let' x := F₁ in F₂. Thanks to these auxiliary definitions and pieces of notation, the formula that wpgen produces as output reads pretty much like the source term provided as input. The benefits, illustrated in the first two chapters (Basic and Repr), is that the proof obligations can be easily related to the source code that they arise from.

Step 4: wpgen Augmented with Support for Structural Rules

In a fourth step, we refine the definition of wpgen in order to equip it with inherent support for applications of the structural rules of the logic, namely the frame rule and the rule of consequence. To achieve this, we carefully craft a predicate called mkstruct and insert it at the head of the output of every call to wpgen, including all its recursive calls. In other words, the definition of wpgen hereafter has the following structure.
    Fixpoint wpgen (E:ctx) (t:trm) : formula :=
      mkstruct (match t with
                | trm_val v ⇒ ...
                | ...
                end). Without going into the details at this stage, the predicate mkstruct is a function of type formula→formula that captures the essence of the wp-style consequence-frame rule wp_conseq_frame, presented the previous chapter. This rule asserts that Q₁ \*+ H ===> Q₂ implies (wp t Q₁) \* H ==> (wp t Q₂). This concludes our little journey towards the definition of wpgen. For conducting proofs in practice, it remains to state lemmas and define "x-tactics" to assist the user in the manipulation of the formulae produced by wpgen. Ultimately, the end-user only manipulates "x-tactics" as in the first two chapters, without ever being required to understand how wpgen is defined. The "more details" section recapitulates each of the four steps presented in the above summary, but explaining in detail all the Coq definitions involved.

More Details

Definition of wpgen for Each Term Construct

The function wpgen computes a heap predicate that has the same meaning as wp. In essence, wpgen takes the form of a recursive function that, like wp, expects a term t and a postcondition Q and produces a heap predicate. The function is recursively defined, and its result is guided by the structure of the term t. In essence, the definition of wpgen has the following shape:
    Fixpoint wpgen (t:trm) (Q:val→hprop) : hprop :=
      match t with
      | trm_val v ⇒ ..
      | trm_seq t₁ t₂ ⇒ ..
      | trm_let x t₁ t₂ ⇒ ..
      | trm_var x ⇒ ..
      | trm_app t₁ t₂ ⇒ ..
      | trm_fun x t₁ ⇒ ..
      | trm_fix f x t₁ ⇒ ..
      | trm_if v₀ t₁ t₂ ⇒ ..
      end. Our first goal is to figure out how to fill in the dots for each of the term constructors. The intention that guides us is the soundness theorem for wpgen, which has the following form:
      wpgen t Q ==> wp t Q This entailment asserts in particular that, if we are able to establish a statement of the form H ==> wpgen t Q, then we can derive H ==> wp t Q from it. The latter is also equivalent to triple t H Q. Thus, wpgen can be viewed as a practical tool for establishing triples. The reciprocal implication, namely wp t Q ==> wpgen t Q, would correspond to a completeness theorem. Completeness is beyond the scope of this course. The historical notes section, located at the end of the chapter, contains a few comments on this question.

Definition of wpgen for Values

Consider first the case of a value v. Recall the reasoning rule for values in weakest-precondition style.

The soundness theorem for wpgen requires the entailment wpgen (trm_val v) Q ==> wp (trm_val v) Q to hold. To satisfy this entailment, according to the rule wp_val, it suffices to define wpgen (trm_val v) Q as Q v. Concretely, we fill in the first dots as follows:
    Fixpoint wpgen (t:trm) (Q:val→hprop) : hprop :=
      match t with
      | trm_val v ⇒ Q v
      ...

Definition of wpgen for Functions

Consider the case of a function definition trm_fun x t. Recall that the wp reasoning rule for functions is very similar to the one for values.

Following this rule, we define wpgen (trm_fun x t₁) Q as Q (val_fun x t₁). Likewise for recursive functions, we define wpgen (trm_fix f x t₁) Q as Q (val_fix f x t₁).
    Fixpoint wpgen (t:trm) (Q:val→hprop) : hprop :=
      match t with
      ...
      | trm_fun x t₁ ⇒ Q (val_fun x t₁)
      | trm_fix f x t₁ ⇒ Q (val_fix f x t₁)
      ... An interesting question that arises here is: why does wpgen (trm_fun x t₁) Q not trigger a recursive call to wpgen on t₁? The long answer is detailed in the last section of this chapter (module WPgenRec). The short answer is:

• it is not technically needed to recurse in the body of local functions, in the sense that the user does not loose any ability to reason about local functions;
• it may be interesting to recurse the body of local functions because it may save the need for the user to manually invoke the tactic xwp for each local function.

Definition of wpgen for Sequences

Recall the wp reasoning rule for a sequence trm_seq t₁ t₂.

The intention is for wpgen to admit the same semantics as wp. We thus expect the definition of wpgen (trm_seq t₁ t₂) Q to have a similar shape to wp t₁ (fun v ⇒ wp t₂ Q). We therefore define wpgen (trm_seq t₁ t₂) Q as wpgen t₁ (fun v ⇒ wpgen t₂ Q). The definition of wpgen is extended as follows:
    Fixpoint wpgen (t:trm) (Q:val→hprop) : hprop :=
      match t with
      ...
      | trm_seq t₁ t₂ ⇒ wpgen t₁ (fun v ⇒ wpgen t₂ Q)
      ...

Definition of wpgen for Let-Bindings

The case of let bindings is similar to that of sequences, except that it involves a substitution. Recall the wp rule:

We fill in the dots as follows:
    Fixpoint wpgen (t:trm) (Q:val→hprop) : hprop :=
      match t with
      ...
      | trm_let x t₁ t₂ ⇒ wpgen t₁ (fun v ⇒ wpgen (subst x v t₂) Q)
      ... Observe that in the above definition, the second recursive call is invoked on subst x v t₂, which is not a strict subterm of t. As explained earlier, this recursion pattern motivates the introduction of substitution contexts, written E, to delay the computation of substitutions until the leaves of the recursion.

Definition of wpgen for Variables

We have seen no reasoning rules for establishing a triple for a program variable, that is, to prove triple (trm_var x) H Q. Indeed, trm_var x is a stuck term: its execution does not produce an output. A source term may of course contain program variables, but all these variables should be substituted away before the execution reaches them. In the case of the function wpgen, a variable bound by a let-binding get substituted while traversing that let-binding construct. Thus, if a free variable is reached by wpgen, it means that this variable was originally a dangling free variable, and therefore that the initial source term was invalid. But, although we have no reasoning rules for triple (trm_var x) H Q nor for H ==> wp (trm_var x) Q, we nevertheless have to provide some meaningful definition for wpgen (trm_var x) Q. This definition should capture the fact that this case must not happen. The heap predicate \[False] appropriately captures this intention.
    Fixpoint wpgen (t:trm) (Q:val→hprop) : hprop :=
      match t with
      ...
      | trm_var x ⇒ \[False]
      ... Remark: the use of \False embodies the fact that, technically, we could have stated a Separation Logic rule for free variables, using False as precondition. There are three ways of presenting this rule:

All these rules are correct, albeit totally useless.

Definition of wpgen for Function Applications

Consider an application in A-normal form, that is, an application of the form trm_app v₁ v₂. We have seen wp-style rules to reason about the application of a known function, e.g. trm_app (val_fun x t₁) v₂. Yet, typically the function v₁ is a function specified in terms of triple. (If v₁ is a primitive function, or if it comes from a function argument, it might not even be the case that v₁ admits the shape val_fun x t₁.) Thus, we wish to reason about an application trm_app v₁ v₂ by exhibiting a triple of the form triple (trm_app v₁ v₂) H Q. As suggested earlier in the chapter, the definition of wpgen (trm_app t₁ t₂) Q needs to correspond to some heap predicate H for which triple (trm_app v₁ v₂) H Q holds. The formula that formalizes this intuition is:
    Fixpoint wpgen (t:trm) (Q:val→hprop) : hprop :=
      match t with
      ...
      | trm_app t₁ t₂ ⇒ ∃ H, H \* \[triple t H Q]
      ... Another possibility would be to define wpgen (trm_app t₁ t₂) Q as wp (trm_app t₁ t₂) Q. In other words, to define wpgen for a function application, we could fall back to the semantic definition of wp.
    Fixpoint wpgen (t:trm) (Q:val→hprop) : hprop :=
      match t with
      ...
      | trm_app t₁ t₂ ⇒ wp t Q
      ... However, this definition would require converting the wp into a triple each time, because specifications are, by convention, expressed using the predicate triple. Remark: we assume throughout the course that terms are written in A-normal form. Nevertheless, we need to define wpgen even on terms that are not in A-normal form. One possibility is to map all these terms to \[False]. However, even in the case of an application of the form trm_app t₁ t₂ where t₁ and t₂ are not both values, it is still correct to define wpgen (trm_app t₁ t₂)) as wp (trm_app t₁ t₂). So, we need not bother checking in the definition of wpgen that the arguments of trm_app are actually values.

Definition of wpgen for Conditionals

Finally, consider an if-statement. Recall the wp-style reasoning rule stated using a Coq conditional.

Typically, a source program may feature a conditional trm_if (trm_var x) t₁ t₂ that, after substitution for x, becomes trm_if (trm_val v) t₁ t₂, for some abstract v of type val. Yet, in general, because we are working here with possibly ill-typed programs, this value is not know to be a boolean value. We therefore need to define wpgen for all if-statements of the form trm_if (trm_val v₀) t₁ t₂, where v₀ could be a value of unknown shape. However, the reasoning rule wp_if stated above features a right-hand side of the form wp (trm_if (val_bool b) t₁ t₂) Q. It only applies when the first argument of trm_if is syntactically a boolean value b. To resolve this mismatch, the definition of wpgen for a term trm_if t₀ t₁ t₂ quantifies existentially over a boolean value b such that t₀ = trm_val (val_bool b). This way, if t₀ is not a boolean value, then wpgen (trm_if t₀ t₁ t₂) Q is equivalent to \[False]. Otherwise, if t₀ is of the form val_bool b, and we are able to perform a case analysis on b, to switch between wpgen t₁ Q and wpgen t₂ Q depending on the value of b. The formal definition is:
    Fixpoint wpgen (t:trm) (Q:val→hprop) : hprop :=
      match t with
      ...
      | trm_if t₀ t₁ t₂ ⇒
          \∃ (b:bool), \[t₀ = trm_val (val_bool b)]
            \* (if b then (wpgen t₁) Q else (wpgen t₂) Q)
      ...

Summary of the Definition So Far

In summary, we have defined:
    Fixpoint wpgen (t:trm) (Q:val→hprop) : hprop :=
      match t with
      | trm_val v ⇒ Q v
      | trm_fun x t₁ ⇒ Q (val_fun x t)
      | trm_fix f x t₁ ⇒ Q (val_fix f x t)
      | trm_seq t₁ t₂ ⇒ wpgen t₁ (fun v ⇒ wpgen t₂ Q)
      | trm_let x t₁ t₂ ⇒ wpgen t₁ (fun v ⇒ wpgen (subst x v t₂) Q)
      | trm_var x ⇒ \[False]
      | trm_app t₁ t₂ ⇒ ∃ H, H \* \[triple t H Q]
      | trm_if t₀ t₁ t₂ ⇒
          \∃ (b:bool), \[t₀ = trm_val (val_bool b)]
            \* (if b then (wpgen t₁) Q else (wpgen t₂) Q)
      end. As pointed out earlier, this definition is not structurally recursive and is thus not accepted by Coq, due to the recursive call wpgen (subst x v t₂) Q. Our next step is to fix this issue.

Computing with wpgen

To make wpgen structurally recursive, the idea is to postpone the substitutions until the leaves of the recursion. To that end, we introduce a substitution context, written E, to record the substitutions that must be performed. Concretely, we modify the function to take the form wpgen E t, where E denotes a list of bindings from variables to values. The intention is that wpgen E t should compute the weakest precondition for the term isubst E t, which denotes the result of substituting all bindings from E inside the term t.

Contexts

A context E is represented as an association list relating variables to values. Recall that all values are closed, i.e., without free variables.

The "iterated substitution" operation, written isubst E t, describes the substitution of all the bindings from a context E into a term t. Its implementation is standard: the function traverses the term recursively and, when reaching a variable, performs a lookup in the context E. The operation needs to take care to respect variable shadowing. To that end, when traversing a binder for a variable x, all occurrences of x that might previously exist in E are removed. The formal definition of isubst involves two auxiliary functions -- lookup and removal -- on association lists. The definition of the operation lookup x E on association lists is standard. It returns an option on a value.

The definition of the removal operation, written rem x E, is also standard. It returns a filtered context.

The definition of the operation isubst E t can then be expressed as a recursive function over the term t. It invokes lookup x E when it reaches a variable x. It invokes rem x E when traversing a binding on the name x.

Remark: it is also possible to define the substitution by iterating the unary substitution subst over the list of bindings from E. However, this alternative approach yields a less efficient function and leads to more complicated proofs. We now present the reformulated definition of wpgen E t, case by case. Throughout these definitions, recall that wpgen E t is interpreted as the weakest precondition of isubst E t.

The Let-Binding Case

When the function wpgen traverses a let-binding, rather than eagerly performing a substitution, it simply extends the current context. Concretely, a call to wpgen E (trm_let x t₁ t₂) triggers a recursive call to wpgen ((x,v)::E) t₂. The corresponding definition is:
    Fixpoint wpgen (E:ctx) (t:trm) : formula :=
      mkstruct (match t with
        ...
        | trm_let x t₁ t₂ ⇒ fun Q ⇒
             (wpgen E t₁) (fun v ⇒ wpgen ((x,v)::E) t₂)
        ...
        ) end.

The Variable Case

When wpgen reaches a variable, it looks for a binding on the variable x inside the context E. Concretely, the evaluation of wpgen E (trm_var x) triggers a call to lookup x E. If the context E binds the variable x to some value v, then the operation lookup x E returns Some v. In that case, wpgen returns the weakest precondition for the value v, that is, Q v. Otherwise, if E does not bind x, the lookup operation returns None. In that case, wpgen returns \[False], the weakest precondition for a stuck program.
    Fixpoint wpgen (E:ctx) (t:trm) : formula :=
      mkstruct (match t with
        ...
        | trm_var x ⇒ fun Q ⇒
             match lookup x E with
             | Some v ⇒ Q v
             | None ⇒ \[False]
             end
        ...
        ) end.

The Application Case

Recall the definition of wpgen without substitution contexts:
    Fixpoint wpgen (t:trm) (Q:val→hprop) : hprop :=
       match t with
       ..
       | trm_app t₁ t₂ ⇒ fun Q ⇒ ∃ H, H \* \[triple t H Q] In the definition with contexts, the term t appearing in triple t H Q needs to be replaced with isubst E t.
    Fixpoint wpgen (t:trm) : formula :=
      mkstruct (match t with
        ...
        | trm_app v₁ v₂ ⇒ fun Q ⇒ ∃ H, H \* \[triple (isubst E t) H Q]
        ..

The Function Definition Case

Suppose t is a function definition, for example trm_fun x t₁. Here again, the formula wpgen E t is interpreted as the weakest precondition of isubst E t. By unfolding the definition of isubst in the case where t is trm_fun x t₁, we obtain trm_fun x (isubst (rem x E) t₁). The corresponding value is trm_val x (isubst (rem x E) t₁). The weakest precondition for that value is fun Q ⇒ Q (val_fun x (isubst (rem x E) t₁)). Thus, wpgen E t handles functions (and recursive functions) as follows:
    Fixpoint wpgen (E:ctx) (t:trm) : formula :=
      mkstruct (match t with
        ...
        | trm_fun x t₁ ⇒ fun Q ⇒ Q (val_fun x (isubst (rem x E) t₁))
        | trm_fix f x t₁ ⇒ fun Q ⇒ Q (val_fix f x (isubst (rem x (rem f E)) t₁))
        ...
        ) end.

wpgen: At Last, an Executable Function

At last, we arrive at a definition of wpgen that type-checks in Coq and that can be used to effectively compute weakest preconditions in Separation Logic.

In the next chapter, we will establish the soundness of the wpgen. For the moment, we simply state the soundness theorem, then explain how it can be exploited for verifying concrete programs.

The entailment above asserts in particular that we can derive triple t H Q by proving H ==> wpgen t Q. A useful corollary combines this soundness theorem with the rule triple_app_fun, which allows establishing triples for functions. Recall triple_app_fun from chapter Rules.

Reformulating the rule above into a rule for wpgen takes 3 steps. First, we rewrite the premise triple (subst x v₂ t₁) H Q using wp. It becomes H ==> wp (subst x v₂ t₁) Q. Second, we observe that the term subst x v₂ t₁ is equal to isubst ((x,v₂)::nil) t₁. (This equality is captured by the lemma subst_eq_isubst_one proved in the next chapter.) Thus, the heap predicate wp (subst x v₂ t₁) Q is equivalent to wp (isubst ((x,v₂)::nil) t₁). Third, according to wpgen_sound, wp (isubst ((x,v₂)::nil) t₁) is entailed by wpgen ((x,v₂)::nil) t₁. Thus, we can use the latter as premise in place of the former. We thereby obtain the following lemma, which is at the heart of the implementation of the tactic xwp.

Executing wpgen on a Concrete Program

Let us exploit triple_app_fun_from_wpgen to demonstrate the computation of wpgen on a practical program. Recall the function incr (defined in Rules), and its specification below.

At the end of the above proof fragment, the goal takes the form H ==> F Q, where H denotes the precondition, Q the postcondition, and F is a formula describing the body of the function incr. Inside this formula, the reader can spot triples for the primitive operations involved. Observe that the goal is nevertheless somewhat hard to relate to the original program. In what follows, we explain how to remedy the situation by setting up wpgen so that its output is human-readable and resembles the original source code.

Consequence and Frame Properties for wpgen

Exercise: 3 stars, standard, especially useful (wpgen_conseq)

Prove that wpgen E t satisfies the same consequence rule as wp t. The statement is directly adapted from wp_conseq, from WPsem. Hint: begin the proof with intros t. induction t..

Exercise: 4 stars, standard, especially useful (wpgen_frame)

Prove that wpgen E t satisfies the same frame rule as wp t. The statement is directly adapted from wp_frame, from WPsem. The sequence case is not easy.

Optimizing the Readability of wpgen's Output

To improve the readability of the formulae produced by wpgen, we take the following 3 steps:

• first, we modify the presentation of wpgen so that the fun (Q:val→hprop) ⇒ appears insides the branches of the match t with rather than around it,
• second, we introduce one auxiliary definition for each branch of the match t with, and
• third, we introduce a Notation for each of these auxiliary definitions.

Reability Step 1: Moving the Function below the Branches.

We distribute the fun Q into the branches of the match t. Concretely, we change from:
 Fixpoint wpgen (E:ctx) (t:trm) (Q:val→hprop) : hprop :=
   match t with
   | trm_val v ⇒ Q v
   | trm_fun x t₁ ⇒ Q (val_fun x (isubst (rem x E) t₁))
   ...
   end. to the equivalent form:
 Fixpoint wpgen (E:ctx) (t:trm) : (val→hprop)->hprop :=
   match t with
   | trm_val v ⇒ fun (Q:val→hprop) ⇒ Q v
   | trm_fun x t₁ ⇒ fun (Q:val→hprop) ⇒ Q (val_fun x (isubst (rem x E) t₁))
   ...
   end. The result type of wpgen E t is (val→hprop)->hprop. Hereafter, we let formula be a shorthand for this type. This shorthand will improve readability, especially when defining the mkstruct combinator, which has type formula→formula.

Readability Steps 2 and 3 for the Case of Sequences

We next introduce auxiliary definitions to denote the result of each of the branches of the match t construct. Concretely, we change from
    Fixpoint wpgen (E:ctx) (t:trm) : formula :=
      match t with
      ...
      | trm_seq t₁ t₂ ⇒ fun Q ⇒ (wpgen E t₁) (fun v ⇒ wpgen E t₂ Q)
      ...
      end. to the equivalent form:
    Fixpoint wpgen (E:ctx) (t:trm) : formula :=
      match t with
      ...
      | trm_seq t₁ t₂ ⇒ wpgen_seq (wpgen E t₁) (wpgen E t₂)
      ...
     end. where wpgen_seq is defined below.

Here, F₁ and F₂ denote the results of the recursive calls, wpgen E t₁ and wpgen E t₂, respectively. With the above definitions, wgpen E (trm_seq t₁ t₂) evaluates to wp_seq (wpgen E t₁) (wpgen E t₂). Finally, we introduce a piece of notation for each case. For sequence, we set up the notation defined next to so that any formula of the form wpgen_seq F₁ F₂ gets displayed as Seq F₁ ; F₂ .

Thanks to this notation, the wpgen of a sequence t₁ ; t₂ displays as Seq F₁ ; F₂ where F₁ and F₂ denote the wpgen of t₁ and t₂, respectively. The "format" clause in the notation definition is there only to improve the pretty-printing of formulae. The semantics of '/' is to encourage a line break. The semantics of square brackets is to delimit blocks. The "v" character next to the leading bracket encourages a vertical alignement of the blocks. Double spaces in the format clause indicate the need to pretty-print a single space, as opposed to an empty spacing.

Readability Step 2: Auxiliary Definitions for other Constructs

We generalize the approach illustrated above for sequences to every other term construct...

The new definition of wpgen reads as follows:

Readability Step 3: Notations for Auxiliary Definitions

We generalize the notation introduced for sequences to every other term construct. The corresponding notation is defined below. To avoid a conflict with the TLC notation for classical conditionals, we write If_ in place of If.

In addition, we introduce a handy notation for the result of wpgen t where t denotes an application. (We cover here only functions of arity one or two. The file LibSepReference.v provides arity-generic definitions.)

Demo of wpgen with Notation.

Here again, we temporarily axiomatize the soundness result for the purpose of looking at how that result can be exploited in practice.

Consider again the example of incr.

Up to whitespace, alpha-renaming, removal of parentheses, and removal of quotes after Let and If), the formula F reads as:
      Let n := App val_get p in
      Let m := App (val_add n) 1 in
      App (val_set p) m With the introduction of intermediate definitions for wpgen and the introduction of associated notations for each term construct, what we have achieved is that the output of wpgen is, for any input term t, a human- readable formula whose display closely resembles the source code of t.

Extension of wpgen to Handle Structural Rules

The definition of wpgen proposed so far integrates the logic of the reasoning rules for terms. The lemmas wpgen_conseq and wpgen_frame established earlier establish that wpgen moreover supports the structural rules of the logic. Yet, when we are in the middle of the verification of a concrete program t, the expression wpgen nil t is already simplified, making it hard to exploit the lemmas wpgen_conseq and wpgen_frame. In order to support convenient application of these rules during the verification of concrete programs, we tweak the definition of wpgen in such a way that, even after simplification, it obviously satisfies both the rule of consequence and the frame rule.

Introduction of mkstruct in the Definition of wpgen

The tweak consists of introducing, at every step of the recursion of wpgen, a special predicate called mkstruct to capture the possibility of applying structural rules.
    Fixpoint wpgen (E:ctx) (t:trm) : (val→hprop)->hprop :=
      mkstruct (
        match t with
        | trm_val v ⇒ wpgen_val v
        ...
        end). With this definition, any output of wpgen E t is necessarily of the form mkstruct F, for some formula F describing the weakest precondition of t. The next step is to investigate what properties mkstruct should satisfy.

Properties of mkstruct

Because mkstruct appears between the prototype and the match in the body of wpgen, it must have type formula→formula.

Next, mkstruct should satisfy reasoning rules that mimic the statements of the frame rule and the consequence rule in weakest-precondition style (wp_frame and wp_conseq).

In addition, the user manipulating a formula produced by wpgen should be able to discard the predicate mkstruct from the head of the output when there is no need to apply the frame rule or the rule of consequence. The erasure property is captured by the following entailment.

Moreover, in order to complete the soundness proof for wpgen, the predicate mkstruct should be covariant: if F₁ entails F₂, then mkstruct F₁ should entail mkstruct F₂.

Realization of mkstruct

The great news is that there exists a predicate satisfying the four required properties of mkstruct. The definition may appear magic at first, and indeed there is no need to deeply understand it or the proofs that follow. The only critical observation is that there exists a predicate mkstruct satisfying the required properties.

The magic wand may appear somewhat puzzling, but the above statement is reminiscent from the statement of wp_ramified, which captures the expressive power of all the structural reasoning rules of Separation Logic at once. If we unfold the definition of the magic wand, we can see more clearly that mkstruct F is a formula that describes a program that produces a postcondition Q when executed in the current state if and only if the formula F describes a program that produces a postcondtion Q₁ in a subset of the current state and if the postcondition Q₁ augmented with the remainder of the current state (i.e., the piece described by H) corresponds to the postcondition Q.

The four properties of mkstruct can be easily verified.

Definition of wpgen with mkstruct

The final definition of wpgen refines the previous one by inserting the mkstruct predicate at the front of the match t with construct.

To avoid clutter in reading the output of wpgen, we introduce a lightweight shorthand to denote mkstruct F, allowing it to display simply as `F.

Once again, we temporarily axiomatize the soundness result for the purpose of looking at how that result can be exploited in practice.

Implementation of X-tactics

X-lemmas for Implementing X-tactics

The last major step in the setup of our verification framework consists of lemmas and tactics to assist in the processing of formulas produced by wpgen. For each term construct, and for mkstruct, we introduce a dedicated lemma, called "x...-lemma", to help with the elimination of that construct. xstruct_lemma is a reformulation of mkstruct_erase.

xval_lemma reformulates the definition of wpgen_val. It just unfolds the definition.

xlet_lemma reformulates the definition of wpgen_let. It just unfolds the definition.

Likewise, xseq_lemma reformulates wpgen_seq.

xapp_lemma applies to goals produced by wpgen on an application. In such cases, the proof obligation is of the form H ==> (wpgen_app t) Q. xapp_lemma reformulates the frame-consequence rule in a way that enables exploiting a specification triple for a function to reason about a call to that function.

xwp_lemma is another name for triple_app_fun_from_wpgen. It is used for establishing a triple for a function application.

Example Proofs using X-lemmas

Let us illustrate how "x-lemmas" help clarifying verification proof scripts.

Exercise: 2 stars, standard, especially useful (triple_succ_using_incr_with_xlemmas)

Using x-lemmas, simplify the proof of triple_succ_using_incr, which was carried out using triples in chapter Rules.

Definition of X-tactics

Next, for each x-lemma, we introduce a dedicated tactic to apply that lemma and perform the associated bookkeeping. xstruct eliminates the leading mkstruct that appears in a goal of the form H ==> mkstruct F Q.

The tactics xval, xseq and xlet invoke the corresponding x-lemmas, after calling xstruct if a leading mkstruct is in the way.

xapp_nosubst applys xapp_lemma, after calling xseq or xlet if applicable. Further on, we will define xapp as an enhanced version of xapp_nosubst that is able to automatically perform substitutions.

xwp applys xwp_lemma, then requests Coq to evaluate the wpgen function. (For technical reasons, in the definition shown below we need to explicitly request the unfolding of wpgen_var.)

Now let us revisit the previous proof scripts using x-tactics instead of x-lemmas. The reader is invited to contemplate the gain in conciseness.

Exercise: 2 stars, standard, especially useful (triple_succ_using_incr_with_xtactics)

Using x-tactics, prove succ_using_incr.

Improved Postprocessing for xapp.

The above proofs frequently exhibit the patterns intros ? → or intros ? x → for some variable x. This pattern is typically occurs whenever the specification of the function being called in the code features a postcondition of the form fun v ⇒ \[v = ..] or of the form fun v ⇒ \[v = ..] \* ... Let us devise a tactic called xapp to automatically handle this pattern. The pattern in its implementation matches on the shape of the goal being produced by a call to xapp_nosubst. It attempts to perform the introduction and the substitution. The reader need not follow through the details of this Ltac definition.

Database of Specification Lemmas for the xapp Tactic.

Explicitly providing arguments to xapp_nosubst or xapp is tedious. To avoid this effort, we set up a database of specification lemmas. Using this database, xapp can automatically look up the relevant specification. The actual CFML tool uses a proper lookup table binding function names to specification lemmas. In this course, however, we'll rely on a simpler mechanism, based on standard hints for eauto. In this setting, we can register specification lemmas using the Hint Resolve ... : triple command, as illustrated below.

The argument-free variants xapp_subst and xapp are implemented by invoking eauto with triple to retrieve the relevant specification. One shortcoming of the version of the xapp tactic that leverages the triple database is that it is not able to automatically apply specifications that involve a premise that eauto cannot solve. To exploit such specifications, we need to provide the specification explicitly using xapp E. This tactic is defined in LibSepReference.v. Its implementation is a bit technical, we do not describe it here.

Demo of Verification using X-tactics

The tactics defined in the previous sections may be used to complete proofs like done in the first two chapters of the course. For example, here is the proof of the increment function.

In summary, we have shown how to leverage wpgen, x-lemmas and x-tactics to implement the core of a practical verification framework based on Separation Logic.

Reasoning about Local Functions

Consider the following program, which defines a local function named f for incrementing a reference cell p, then invokes f() twice. The purpose of this example is to illustrate how to reason about a local function.   fun p →
    let f = (fun () → incr p) in
    f();
    f()

There are two possible approaches to reasoning about this code. In the first approach, we store the hypothesis capturing that f has for code fun () → incr p, and each time we encounter a call to f, we "inline" the code of f at the call site. This approach is very effective when f has a unique occurrence. However, if f has multiple occurrences, then the user has to reason several times about the same code pattern. The second approach yields a modular proof. When reasoning about the definition of f, we assert and prove a specification for f, then immediately discard any information revealing what the code of f is. Then, each time we encounter a call to f, we use xapp to leverage the specification of the local function f, exactly like we have been doing everywhere for reasoning about calls to top-level functions. Let us illustrate the two approaches, and introduce on the way a few additional x-tactics relevant for local functions.

1. Reasoning about Local Functions by Inlining

To begin with, let us naively attempt to use the tactics xlet and xval to reason about the function definitions.

At this point, we have the formula for the body of the function incrtwice, which binds (under the name v) the value fun {"u"} ⇒ {incr p}.

By typing xlet, we focus on this value fun {"u"} ⇒ {incr p}. The tactic xval then substitutes this value throughout the remaining of the formula.

Because the body of incrtwice contains two calls to the local function f, the resulting formula contains two copies of the function fun {"u"} ⇒ {incr p}. This kind of duplication, in general, is problematic, because the size of the formulae grow significantly.

We therefore introduce a variant of the xlet tactic, called xletval, that processes let-bindings by introducing an equality in the Coq context. For example, for our local function f, a fresh hypothesis named f of type val is introduced, and an hypothesis of type asserting that f is equal to fun {"u"} ⇒ {incr p} is provided to characterize the value f. Let us first defined the tactic xval, then illustrate its usage. The tactic xletval applies to formulae arising from terms of the form let x = v₁ in t₂. It processes the binding let x = v₁ by introducing in the goal a universal quantification over a variable x and over an hypothesis of type x = v₁.